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What Are Representative Geometric Shapes and Vegetable Patterns Used in Islamic Art

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Geometric design characteristic of Muslim art

Tiled mosque in Samarkand

Doorway decorated with strapwork, arabesques and tilework

Islamic geometric patterns are 1 of the major forms of Islamic ornamentation, which tends to avert using figurative images, equally it is forbidden to create a representation of an important Islamic effigy co-ordinate to many holy scriptures.

The geometric designs in Islamic art are often congenital on combinations of repeated squares and circles, which may exist overlapped and interlaced, as can arabesques (with which they are often combined), to form intricate and complex patterns, including a wide variety of tessellations. These may plant the entire decoration, may form a framework for floral or calligraphic embellishments, or may retreat into the background around other motifs. The complexity and variety of patterns used evolved from simple stars and lozenges in the 9th century, through a multifariousness of 6- to 13-point patterns by the 13th century, and finally to include also fourteen- and 16-point stars in the sixteenth century.

Geometric patterns occur in a diverseness of forms in Islamic art and architecture. These include kilim carpets, Farsi girih and Moroccan zellij tilework, muqarnas decorative vaulting, jali pierced rock screens, ceramics, leather, stained glass, woodwork, and metalwork.

Involvement in Islamic geometric patterns is increasing in the West, both amid craftsmen and artists like M. C. Escher in the twentieth century, and among mathematicians and physicists such as Peter J. Lu and Paul Steinhardt.

Background [edit]

Islamic decoration [edit]

Islamic art mostly avoids figurative images to avert becoming objects of worship.[i] [2] This aniconism in Islamic culture caused artists to explore non-figural art, and created a full general aesthetic shift toward mathematically-based ornament.[3] The Islamic geometric patterns derived from simpler designs used in earlier cultures: Greek, Roman, and Sasanian. They are one of 3 forms of Islamic ornamentation, the others being the arabesque based on curving and branching plant forms, and Islamic calligraphy; all three are frequently used together.[four] [v]

Purpose [edit]

Authors such equally Keith Critchlow[a] argue that Islamic patterns are created to lead the viewer to an understanding of the underlying reality, rather than being mere decoration, every bit writers interested simply in blueprint sometimes imply.[6] [7] In Islamic culture, the patterns are believed to exist the bridge to the spiritual realm, the instrument to purify the mind and the soul.[8] David Wade[b] states that "Much of the fine art of Islam, whether in compages, ceramics, textiles or books, is the art of decoration – which is to say, of transformation."[nine] Wade argues that the aim is to transfigure, turning mosques "into lightness and design", while "the decorated pages of a Qur'an tin become windows onto the infinite."[9] Confronting this, Doris Behrens-Abouseif[c] states in her book Dazzler in Standard arabic Culture that a "major difference" betwixt the philosophical thinking of Medieval Europe and the Islamic world is exactly that the concepts of the good and the beautiful are separated in Arabic civilization. She argues that dazzler, whether in verse or in the visual arts, was enjoyed "for its own sake, without commitment to religious or moral criteria".[x]

  • Styles of Islamic geometric decoration

  • A variety of colloquial decorative Islamic styles in Kingdom of morocco: girih-like wooden panels, zellij tilework, stucco calligraphy, and floral door panels

  • An archway in the Ottoman Green Mosque, Bursa, Turkey (1424), with girih 10-indicate stars and pentagons

Pattern germination [edit]

Dome of shrine decorated with many different shapes of star

The Shah Nematollah Vali Shrine, Mahan, Islamic republic of iran, 1431. The blue girih-tiled dome contains stars with, from the height, 5, vii, 9, 12, 11, 9 and ten points in plow. 11-point stars are rare in Islamic fine art.[11]

Many Islamic designs are built on squares and circles, typically repeated, overlapped and interlaced to form intricate and circuitous patterns.[4] A recurring motif is the viii-pointed star, ofttimes seen in Islamic tilework; it is made of 2 squares, one rotated 45 degrees with respect to the other. The quaternary bones shape is the polygon, including pentagons and octagons. All of these can be combined and reworked to form complicated patterns with a diverseness of symmetries including reflections and rotations. Such patterns can exist seen as mathematical tessellations, which can extend indefinitely and thus advise infinity.[4] [12] They are synthetic on grids that crave but ruler and compass to draw.[13] Creative person and educator Roman Verostko argues that such constructions are in issue algorithms, making Islamic geometric patterns forerunners of modern algorithmic art.[fourteen]

The circle symbolizes unity and diverseness in nature, and many Islamic patterns are drawn starting with a circle.[15] For example, the ornamentation of the 15th-century mosque in Yazd, Persia is based on a circumvolve, divided into six by six circles fatigued effectually it, all touching at its centre and each touching its two neighbours' centres to grade a regular hexagon. On this basis is constructed a six-pointed star surrounded by six smaller irregular hexagons to class a tessellating star pattern. This forms the basic blueprint which is outlined in white on the wall of the mosque. That design, nevertheless, is overlaid with an intersecting tracery in bluish around tiles of other colours, forming an elaborate pattern that partially conceals the original and underlying design.[fifteen] [xvi] A similar design forms the logo of the Mohammed Ali Research Heart.[17]

I of the early Western students of Islamic patterns, Ernest Hanbury Hankin, defined a "geometrical arabesque" as a pattern formed "with the help of construction lines consisting of polygons in contact."[v] He observed that many different combinations of polygons tin be used equally long every bit the residual spaces betwixt the polygons are reasonably symmetrical. For example, a grid of octagons in contact has squares (of the same side every bit the octagons) as the balance spaces. Every octagon is the footing for an 8-point star, as seen at Akbar's tomb, Sikandra (1605–1613). Hankin considered the "skill of the Arabian artists in discovering suitable combinations of polygons .. almost phenomenal."[v] He further records that if a star occurs in a corner, exactly one quarter of it should be shown; if along an edge, exactly ane half of it.[5]

The Topkapı Scroll, made in Timurid dynasty Iran in the late-15th century or start of the 16th century, contains 114 patterns including coloured designs for girih tilings and muqarnas quarter or semidomes.[18] [xix] [20]

The mathematical properties of the decorative tile and stucco patterns of the Alhambra palace in Granada, Spain accept been extensively studied. Some authors have claimed on dubious grounds to have plant most or all of the 17 wallpaper groups in that location.[21] [22] Moroccan geometric woodwork from the 14th to 19th centuries makes utilise of only 5 wallpaper groups, mainly p4mm and c2mm, with p6mm and p2mm occasionally and p4gm rarely; it is claimed that the "Hasba" (measure) method of construction, which starts with n-fold rosettes, can nevertheless generate all 17 groups.[23]

  • Methods of construction

  • Construction of girih pattern in Darb-e Imam spandrel (yellow line). Construction decagons blue, bowties cerise. The strapwork cuts across the construction tessellation.

  • Decoration in Tomb of I'timād-ud-Daulah, Agra, showing right treatment of sides and corners. A quarter of each vi-bespeak star is shown in each corner; half stars forth the sides.

  • Architectural cartoon for brick vaulting, Iran, probably Tehran, 1800–70

Evolution [edit]

Simple early Islamic geometric tilework

Early stage [edit]

The earliest geometrical forms in Islamic art were occasional isolated geometric shapes such as viii-pointed stars and lozenges containing squares. These appointment from 836 in the Great Mosque of Kairouan, Tunisia, and since then have spread all across the Islamic earth.[24]

Middle stage [edit]

Middle stage Islamic patterns

The next development, marking the middle stage of Islamic geometric pattern usage, was of half dozen- and eight-point stars, which appear in 879 at the Ibn Tulun Mosque, Cairo, and so became widespread.[24]

A wider multifariousness of patterns were used from the 11th century. Abstruse 6- and 8-point shapes appear in the Belfry of Kharaqan at Qazvin, Persia in 1067, and the Al-Juyushi Mosque, Arab republic of egypt in 1085, once again becoming widespread from at that place, though half-dozen-point patterns are rare in Turkey.[24]

In 1086, 7- and x-point girih patterns (with heptagons, 5- and 6-pointed stars, triangles and irregular hexagons) appear in the Jameh Mosque of Isfahan. x-point girih became widespread in the Islamic earth, except in the Spanish Al-Andalus.[24] Soon afterwards, sweeping 9-, 11-, and 13-indicate girih patterns were used in the Barsian Mosque, also in Persia, in 1098; these, similar 7-point geometrical patterns, are rarely used outside Persia and central Asia.[24]

Finally, marker the end of the middle stage, eight- and 12-signal girih rosette patterns appear in the Alâeddin Mosque at Konya, Turkey in 1220, and in the Abbasid palace in Baghdad in 1230, going on to become widespread beyond the Islamic earth.[24]

Tardily stage [edit]

Elaborate late stage Islamic woodwork

The beginning of the late stage is marked by the use of simple 16-point patterns at the Hasan Sadaqah mausoleum in Cairo in 1321, and in the Alhambra in Espana in 1338–1390. These patterns are rarely found outside these ii regions. More elaborate combined sixteen-point geometrical patterns are found in the Sultan Hassan complex in Cairo in 1363, simply rarely elsewhere. Finally, xiv-bespeak patterns appear in the Jama Masjid at Fatehpur Sikri in Bharat in 1571–1596, but in few other places.[24] [d]

Artforms [edit]

Several artforms in different parts of the Islamic globe make use of geometric patterns. These include ceramics,[26] girih strapwork,[27] jali pierced stone screens,[28] kilim rugs,[29] leather,[30] metalwork,[31] muqarnas vaulting,[32] shakaba stained glass,[33] woodwork,[27] and zellij tiling.[34]

Ceramics [edit]

Ceramics lend themselves to circular motifs, whether radial or tangential. Bowls or plates can be decorated inside or out with radial stripes; these may be partly figurative, representing stylised leaves or blossom petals, while round bands can run around a bowl or jug. Patterns of these types were employed on Islamic ceramics from the Ayyubid period, 13th century. Radially symmetric flowers with, say, half dozen petals lend themselves to increasingly stylised geometric designs which tin can combine geometric simplicity with recognisably naturalistic motifs, brightly coloured glazes, and a radial limerick that ideally suits circular crockery. Potters often chose patterns suited to the shape of the vessel they were making.[26] Thus an unglazed earthenware water flask[e] from Aleppo in the shape of a vertical circle (with handles and cervix above) is decorated with a ring of moulded braiding around an Arabic inscription with a small viii-petalled flower at the center.[35]

Girih tilings and woodwork [edit]

Girih are elaborate interlacing patterns formed of v standardized shapes. The fashion is used in Farsi Islamic compages and also in decorative woodwork.[27] Girih designs are traditionally fabricated in unlike media including cut brickwork, stucco, and mosaic faience tilework. In woodwork, especially in the Safavid menses, information technology could be applied either as lattice frames, left plain or inset with panels such every bit of coloured glass; or as mosaic panels used to decorate walls and ceilings, whether sacred or secular. In architecture, girih forms decorative interlaced strapwork surfaces from the 15th century to the 20th century. Nigh designs are based on a partially hidden geometric grid which provides a regular array of points; this is made into a pattern using 2-, 3-, four-, and vi-fold rotational symmetries which can fill the aeroplane. The visible pattern superimposed on the filigree is as well geometric, with vi-, 8-, 10- and 12-pointed stars and a variety of convex polygons, joined by straps which typically seem to weave over and under each other.[27] [36] The visible pattern does not coincide with the underlying construction lines of the tiling.[27] The visible patterns and the underlying tiling represent a bridge linking the invisible to the visible, coordinating to the "epistemological quest" in Islamic civilization, the search for the nature of knowledge.[37]

Jali [edit]

Mosque of Ibn Tulun: window with girih-style x-indicate stars (at rear), with floral roundels in octagons forming a frieze at forepart

Main commodity: Jali

Jali are pierced stone screens with regularly repeating patterns. They are characteristic of Indo-Islamic architecture, for example in the Mughal dynasty buildings at Fatehpur Sikri and the Taj Mahal. The geometric designs combine polygons such as octagons and pentagons with other shapes such every bit 5- and 8-pointed stars. The patterns emphasized symmetries and suggested infinity by repetition. Jali functioned as windows or room dividers, providing privacy simply allowing in air and low-cal.[28] Jali forms a prominent chemical element of the architecture of India.[38] The use of perforated walls has declined with modern building standards and the need for security. Modern, simplified jali walls, for example made with pre-moulded clay or cement blocks, have been popularised past the architect Laurie Bakery.[39] Pierced windows in girih style are sometimes found elsewhere in the Islamic world, such as in windows of the Mosque of Ibn Tulun in Cairo.[40]

Kilim [edit]

Somewhat geometric motifs such as the Wolf's Oral cavity (Kurt Aǧzi), to protect the flocks against wolves, are often woven into tribal kilims.

A kilim is an Islamic[29] flatwoven carpet (without a pile), whether for household apply or a prayer mat. The pattern is made past winding the weft threads back over the warp threads when a colour boundary is reached. This technique leaves a gap or vertical slit, so kilims are sometimes called slit-woven textiles. Kilims are often decorated with geometric patterns with two- or iv-fold mirror or rotational symmetries. Because weaving uses vertical and horizontal threads, curves are difficult to generate, and patterns are accordingly formed mainly with straight edges.[16] [41] Kilim patterns are oftentimes characteristic of specific regions.[42] Kilim motifs are often symbolic every bit well as decorative. For example, the wolf'southward mouth or wolf's pes motif (Turkish: Kurt Aǧzi, Kurt İzi) expresses the tribal weavers' desires for protection of their families' flocks from wolves.[43]

Leather [edit]

Islamic leather is often embossed with patterns like to those already described. Leather book covers, starting with the Quran where figurative artwork was excluded, were decorated with a combination of kufic script, medallions and geometric patterns, typically bordered by geometric braiding.[thirty]

Metalwork [edit]

Metal artefacts share the aforementioned geometric designs that are used in other forms of Islamic fine art. However, in the view of Hamilton Gibb, the emphasis differs: geometric patterns tend to be used for borders, and if they are in the main decorative area they are most often used in combination with other motifs such as floral designs, arabesques, animal motifs, or calligraphic script. Geometric designs in Islamic metalwork can form a grid decorated with these other motifs, or they can form the background pattern.[31]

Even where metal objects such as bowls and dishes do non seem to take geometric decoration, nonetheless the designs, such equally arabesques, are often set in octagonal compartments or arranged in concentric bands around the object. Both closed designs (which do not repeat) and open up or repetitive patterns are used. Patterns such as interlaced six-pointed stars were especially pop from the 12th century. Eva Baer[f] notes that while this design was essentially simple, it was elaborated by metalworkers into intricate patterns interlaced with arabesques, sometimes organised around further basic Islamic patterns, such as the hexagonal pattern of vi overlapping circles.[45]

Muqarnas [edit]

Muqarnas are elaborately carved ceilings to semi-domes, oftentimes used in mosques. They are typically made of stucco (and thus practice not accept a structural role), but tin can also exist of wood, brick, and rock. They are characteristic of Islamic architecture of the Heart Ages from Espana and Morocco in the west to Persia in the eastward. Architecturally they form multiple tiers of squinches, diminishing in size as they rise. They are ofttimes elaborately decorated.[32]

Stained glass [edit]

Geometrically patterned stained glass is used in a variety of settings in Islamic compages. It is found in the surviving summertime residence of the Palace of Shaki Khans, Azerbaijan, constructed in 1797. Patterns in the "shabaka" windows include half dozen-, 8-, and 12-betoken stars. These woods-framed decorative windows are distinctive features of the palace's architecture. Shabaka are still constructed the traditional fashion in Sheki in the 21st century.[33] [46] Traditions of stained drinking glass set in wooden frames (non lead as in Europe) survive in workshops in Iran too every bit Azerbaijan.[47] Glazed windows set up in stucco arranged in girih-similar patterns are found both in Turkey and the Arab lands; a belatedly example, without the traditional balance of blueprint elements, was made in Tunisia for the International Colonial Exhibition in Amsterdam in 1883.[48] The old city of Sana'a in Yemen has stained glass windows in its tall buildings.[49]

Zellij [edit]

Zellij (Standard arabic: الزَّلِيْج) is geometric tilework with glazed terracotta tiles set up into plaster, forming colourful mosaic patterns including regular and semiregular tessellations. The tradition is characteristic of Kingdom of morocco, but is also constitute in Moorish Kingdom of spain. Zellij is used to decorate mosques, public buildings and wealthy private houses.[34]

Illustrations [edit]

  • Media used for Islamic geometric patterns

  • Decoratively patterned ceramic bowl from Persia

    Safavid basin with radial and circular motifs, Persia, 17th century

  • Lustre tiles from Iran, probably Kashan, 1262, in the shapes of the Sufi symbols for the divine breath

  • Complicated strapwork tiling

  • Simple geometric patterns on a flatweave rug

    Woven wool Kilim from Turkey

  • Finely worked leather bookbinding

    Leather prayer book encompass, Persia, 16th century

  • Elaborate stepped vaulting in Iran

Exterior Islamic fine art [edit]

In Western culture [edit]

Colourful geometric tiling in the Alhambra, Spain

It is sometimes supposed in Western society that mistakes in repetitive Islamic patterns such every bit those on carpets were intentionally introduced as a show of humility by artists who believed only Allah can produce perfection, but this theory is denied.[51] [52] [53]

Combination of geometric patterns with arabesque swirls and elegant calligraphy in the Alhambra, Spain

Major Western collections hold many objects of widely varying materials with Islamic geometric patterns. The Victoria and Albert Museum in London holds at least 283 such objects, of materials including wallpaper, carved wood, inlaid forest, tin- or lead-glazed earthenware, brass, stucco, glass, woven silk, ivory, and pen or pencil drawings.[54] The Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York has among other relevant holdings 124 mediaeval (one thousand–1400 A.D.) objects bearing Islamic geometric patterns,[55] including a pair of Egyptian minbar (pulpit) doors most 2 1000. high in rosewood and mulberry inlaid with ivory and ebony;[56] and an unabridged mihrab (prayer niche) from Isfahan, decorated with polychrome mosaic, and weighing over 2,000 kg.[57]

Wooden box inlaid with ivory with zellij-like geometrical motifs. Italy (Florence or Venice) 15th century.

Islamic decoration and adroitness had a significant influence on Western art when Venetian merchants brought goods of many types back to Italy from the 14th century onwards.[58]

The Dutch creative person M. C. Escher was inspired by the Alhambra's intricate decorative designs to study the mathematics of tessellation, transforming his fashion and influencing the rest of his artistic career.[59] [lx] In his ain words it was "the richest source of inspiration I have ever tapped."[61]

Influence on the sciences [edit]

Cultural organisations such as the Mathematical Sciences Research Constitute and the Institute for Advanced Study run events on geometric patterns and related aspects of Islamic art.[62] In 2013 the Istanbul Heart of Design and the Ensar Foundation ran what they claimed was the showtime ever symposium of Islamic Arts and Geometric Patterns, in Istanbul. The console included the experts on Islamic geometric design Ballad Bier,[chiliad] Jay Bonner,[h] [65] Eric Broug,[i] Hacali Necefoğlu[j] and Reza Sarhangi.[k] [69] In Britain, The Prince'due south School of Traditional Arts runs a range of courses in Islamic art including geometry, calligraphy, and arabesque (vegetal forms), tile-making, and plaster etching.[70]

Tomb towers of two Seljuk princes at Kharaghan, Qazvin province, Iran, covered with many unlike brick patterns similar those that inspired Ahmad Rafsanjani to create auxetic materials

Computer graphics and computer-aided manufacturing make it possible to design and produce Islamic geometric patterns effectively and economically. Craig Due south. Kaplan explains and illustrates in his Ph.D. thesis how Islamic star patterns tin be generated algorithmically.[71]

Two physicists, Peter J. Lu and Paul Steinhardt, attracted controversy in 2007 by claiming[72] that girih designs such every bit that used on the Darb-east Imam shrine[l] in Isfahan were able to create quasi-periodic tilings resembling those discovered past Roger Penrose in 1973. They showed that rather than the traditional ruler and compass construction, it was possible to create girih designs using a fix of five "girih tiles", all equilateral polygons, secondarily decorated with lines (for the strapwork).[73]

In 2016, Ahmad Rafsanjani described the use of Islamic geometric patterns from tomb towers in Iran to create auxetic materials from perforated safe sheets. These are stable in either a contracted or an expanded state, and can switch between the two, which might exist useful for surgical stents or for spacecraft components. When a conventional cloth is stretched forth one axis, it contracts along other axes (at correct angles to the stretch). Only auxetic materials expand at right angles to the pull. The internal structure that enables this unusual behaviour is inspired by 2 of the 70 Islamic patterns that Rafsanjani noted on the tomb towers.[74]

Notes [edit]

  1. ^ Critchlow is a professor of architecture, and the author of a book on Islamic patterns.
  2. ^ Wade is the author of a series of books on blueprint in diverse artforms.
  3. ^ Behrens-Abouseif is a professor of the history of art and architecture at SOAS.
  4. ^ One such place is the Mustansiriyya Madrasa in Baghdad, every bit illustrated by Broug.[25]
  5. ^ Leaving the flask porous allowed evaporation, keeping the water absurd.[35]
  6. ^ Baer is Emeritus Professor of Islamic Studies at Tel Aviv Academy.[44]
  7. ^ Bier is a historian of Islamic art who studies pattern.[63]
  8. ^ Bonner is an architect specialising in Islamic decoration.[64]
  9. ^ Broug writes books and runs courses on Islamic geometric pattern.[66]
  10. ^ Necefoğlu is a professor of chemistry at Kafkas University interested in blueprint and crystallography.[67]
  11. ^ Sarhangi is the founder of The Bridges System. He studies the mathematics of Western farsi architecture and mosaic pattern.[68]
  12. ^ Illustrated in a higher place.

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External links [edit]

  • Museum with no Frontiers: Geometric Decoration
  • Victoria and Albert Museum: Teachers' resources: Maths and Islamic art & design

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_geometric_patterns

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